The above statement outline how close to home this problem actually was. As we are situated in the lower mainland it is surprising to note just how many residential schools were in British Columbia. However, for my literature review I focused on the effects of the residential schools on Aboriginal health.In this section I will be doing a brief overview of my literature review findings to outline the health problems caused by the residential schools

Adverse Effects Following Escape from Residential Schools

      For this web-page I am regarding escape either as the release or the physical escape that Aboriginal students of the residential schools went through to get away from the adverse effects. In this examination I am looking at this from the view of the aboriginal people as opposed to the people who ran these institutions, as they only had positive things to say.

Substance Abuse

     Substance abuse is a major problem in the Aboriginal community. The authors Brady; Locklear; O’Nell & Mitchell; Sellers, Winfree, & Griffiths; and Watts & Gutierres stated that “Stresses related to the legacy of colonialism and acculturation pressures related to the loss of traditional cultural values and norms are often cited as causal factors in American Indian youths’ drug use” as cited in Kulis, Napoli and Marsiglia (2002, June). The effects of residential schools had been a major contributor to this problem. This is demonstrated by Flowers (2005, Feb.), who states “Alcoholism is the most widespread and severe problem in the American Indian community. It is the major mental health problem and contributes to unintentional injury, chronic liver disease, cirrhosis, suicide, spouse abuse, fetal alcohol syndrome, teen pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, and homicide.” Similarly, Miller (1996) states “In retrospect, the legacy of the residential schools can be seen on every street corner in Canada. There are thousands of once proud native people who have been reduced to drunken shells by their experiences in those institutions…Those with whom I went to boarding school who are still living are almost all alcoholics, to mask their shame.” Also to back up this conclusion, Wardman and Quantz (2005) state “In addition to these immediate triggers, participants also described broader elements in their lives that they felt contributed to their binge drinking. Foremost of these was a background of abuse including mental, physical and sexual…Participants described their binge drinking as a way of escaping from, or numbing the emotional pain caused by the abuse.” Wardman and Quantz (2005) also state that “Closely related to the feelings of low self-worth expressed by participants were feelings of a loss of cultural and community identity, as well as racism. Most participants related their binge drinking to a broader perception of shame and cultural loss within their community…For some, the loss of culture and identity began in residential schools, where they were forbidden to practice Aboriginal culture and traditions.”

       Randy Fred, as cited in Haig-Brown (1988), backs up the finding that alcohol is a major health problem for Aboriginals, particularly those who attended residential schools by stating “At the age of twelve booze discovered me. A beautiful escape from hell. The same year I experimented with drugs and began chainsmoking cigarettes. By the time I was fifteen booze was a real problem, and continued to be until only recently. I know this was the case with many of the people who attended residential schools. Booze was an easy escape.” This research does leave somewhat of a hole in what help there is for those aboriginals who are suffering from a substance abuse problem, as I could find no literature of the sort regarding this.

Inadequacy of Child Care

     Residential schools also led to the removal of Aboriginal children from their homes. This led to a lack of knowledge of how to raise a child and subsequently the inability of the Aboriginal adult to care for his/her own child. Dieter (1999) states “Some survivors and their communities have lost the skills needed to be healthy individuals. The loss of nurturing parents; loss of parenting skills; loss of identity; low self-esteem; the inability to think independently; the lack of unity within families and communities; the loss of language, culture, and respect for self; and finally, the loss of spiritual values have left communities in chaos.” Likewise, “The disproportionate number of Aboriginal children placed in out-of home care is of particular concern in light of the history of assimilationist education and child welfare policies in Canada (Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples 1996; Blackstock, Trocme´, and Bennett 2004). For more than a century, education for on-reserve Aboriginal children was primarily provided through church-run residential schools designed to assimilate Aboriginal children into both Caucasian culture and the churches (Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples 1996; Milloy 1999). The children were forbidden to speak their own languages, practice their spiritual traditions, or maintain their cultural traditions. Schools were usually too far from reserves to enable contact with parents. Siblings were separated in residence. Sexual and physical abuse and death from disease were common (Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples 1996; Milloy 1999). Children in residential schools did not encounter healthy parental role models and, as adults, frequently had diminished capacity to care for their own children (Bennett and Blackstock 2002).” As cited in Trocme, Knoke, & Blackstock (2004, Dec.).

cycle of abuse

     There are underlying reasons why the Aboriginal people have this inability to care for their children. This could be a fear that they will continue on the abuse that they suffered at the hands of the residential schools leaders. Sutherland, as cited in Bull & Alia (2004, June), states that “In Canada and the US, residential schools and legislation echoed the policies articulated in Australia. In Canada alone, more than 100,000 indigenous children were taken from their homes and communities to white-run mission schools where assimilation was the primary goal. Abuse of various kinds was a prominent feature of mission school life. Students were often malnourished, had their hair cut, their clothing changed, and were subjected to arbitrary punishment especially if they spoke their mother tongue. When the time came for them to return to their communities, many of the children found they were no longer able to relate to their families. The disruption in family life and child-rearing practices has resulted in adult survivors not having the skills required to care adequately for their own children. Thus the cycle of abuse continues”. Correspondingly Miller (1996) states “Our parents suffered violent abuse from the priests and nuns who were entrusted with their young bodies and souls and they in turn passed on this learned behaviour to us. It is not natural for native people to abuse their children.” Again, this is another area that has room for improvement regarding whether there was any parenting help for those who attended residential schools. Unfortunately, there appears to be an unwillingness for the aboriginal communities to address the issue of residential schools with their people as I believe that they are afraid of what may be uncovered.

Suicide

      Haig-Brown (1988) states “The alcoholism and suicide statistics speak to the suffering and pain of many who attended the school and conversely to the strength of those survivors.” This has a connection to the substance abuse section.

      Unfortunately if there was more help for those who attended the residential schools this may not be as big an issue. Dieter (1999) states “Many First Nations people, and others, have blamed the high number of health and addiction disorders, the high suicide and overall mortality rates, the family and school disintegration on the effects of attending the residential schools.” In the same way, Randy Fred as cited in Haig-Brown (1988), states “No doubt the school messed up my head a lot, made a big asshole out of me. My point of reference for ‘big’ is the fact that I attempted suicide twice after I left the school, another reason for seeing myself as a failure, both for failing to do it and for wanting to do it." Unfortunately, the residential schools seem to have possibly promoted suicide. In the situation below, this could be sending a message to the young children who attended these schools. Milloy (1999) stated that “Reverend W. Moore, a Methodist missionary on Mistiwasis Reserve, reported, in 1903, that at the Regina School, where he sent children from his community, one of the teachers, Mr. Gilmour, had handed a revolver to a young girl who announced she wanted to commit suicide, telling her to go ahead and pull the trigger. She did – but the gun was empty.” I would be willing to bet that this was not the only instance of a situation similar to this. There were no results in this section related to the percentage of students who attended residential schools that committed suicide, either at the schools, or following escape.

Adverse Effects Suffered While in Residential Schools

      This will mostly look at the suffering the Aboriginal children went through while attending the residential schools, as well as the loss of the Aboriginal culture. Also, I feel that it is important to note that during the years that the residential schools were in operation, there were many mysterious disappearances of young Aboriginal children.

Removal of culture

      The oppression and removal of Native culture that occurred within the schools came from the strict rules and regulations set down by the churches running the residential school systems. The Aboriginal students were not allowed to speak their language or perform any ceremonies or practices once an integral part of their culture. Dieter (1999) states that “However, the final devastation was the destruction of cultural and spiritual values. First Nations spirituality is based on respect, humility, sharing, and group harmony. These values were not honoured by the school administrators. Traditional teachings that would have taught these values were transmitted by parents and elders of the community. The children would have been taught to respect all humans and creatures; be kind to people; not to swear, lie, or steal...in order to survive we had to resort to a lot of things that were not normal. I was becoming sneaky, lying in order to survive.” Correspondingly, Milloy (1999) states that “Schools could not be “home-like”; the basic premise of re-socialization was violent. “To kill the Indian” in the child, the Department and churches aimed at severing the artery of culture that ran between Aboriginal generations. In the end, “All the Indian there is in the race should be dead.” This was more than a rhetorical flourish or figurative act. It took on a sharp and traumatic reality in the life of each child who was separated from parents and community and isolated in a threatening world hostile to identity, traditional ritual, and language.”

      Haig-Brown (1988) states that “As has been noted, the use of Shuswap, Thompson, Chilcotin, or any other Native language was forbidden in the school. Although second generations attending the residential school frequently did not speak their language, the first generation managed to maintain their knowledge at least partially. Many who started school at nine or ten have either retained their fluency, or regained it with the recent developing awareness of the significance of language to culture. Those who left school in the earlier years found some need to readjust to using the language. Leo commented:

      Within these words lie a clear indication of the intent by the school to eradicate the Native people’s language. Not only were students forbidden to speak it in school, they were also convinced that their use of the language was an indication of inferiority.”

Sexual Abuse

     Sexually abuse was probably the largest problem within the residential schools. This occurred not only with the males running the institution but also the other students as well as the females who were ‘superior’ to the students. Randy Fred, as cited in Haig-Brown (1988), states that “I was first sexually abused by a student when I was six years old, and by a supervisor, an ex-Navy homosexual, when I was eight. Homosexuality was prevalent in the school. I learned how to use sexuality to my advantage, as did many other students. Sexual favours brought me protection, sweets (a rarity in the school), and even money to buy booze. But this had long term effects…including alcoholism, the inability to touch people, and an ‘I don’t care’ attitude.” Likewise, Furniss (1995) states that “Focus on the residential schools was heightened in the late 1980’s when, in the course of police investigations into allegations of sexual assault in one of the reserve communities, a number of past students disclosed that they were sexually abused while at the Mission. Criminal charges have since been laid against three Oblates. Two other Oblates, both past workers at the Mission, also have been implicated but have not been charged. In 1989 Father Harold McIntee pleaded guilty to sexually assaulting thirteen boys at the Mission in the late 1950’s and early 1960’s.” Furniss (1995) also stated that “Added to this is the sexual abuse that so many had to endure, and we know that children who tried to report these sexual abuse happenings got the strap for lying. That to me is not training for success; it is training for self-destruction. And thousands did self-destruct. If they didn’t commit suicide, they became addicted to anything that would numb or distract the pain – and the addictions only became another thing to be ashamed of.”

Physical Abuse

      Physical Abuse was a daily occurrence in the majority of residential schools. Students were beaten for a variety of reasons, anything from speaking their own language to stepping out of line. Originally intended to keep the students in line, the strap became something that was feared and used for much longer beatings than intended. Miller (1996) stated that “The arbitrary and unpredictable use of physical violence in the guise of discipline and correction was disturbingly common in the residential schools…Then there were outright sadists and the people who found it necessary or pleasurable to exert their power over small children by the use of force. A Sister of Charity at Shubenacadie school ordered a boy who had accidentally spilled the salt from the shaker while seasoning his porridge to eat the ruined food. He declined, she struck him, and told him to eat it. When he downed a spoonful and then vomited into his bowl, the sister hit him on the head and said, ‘I told you to eat it!’ A second attempt produced the same result. On his third try, the student fainted. The sister then ‘picked him up by the neck and threw him out to the center aisle’ in the dining hall.” Similarly, Brass, as cited in Dieter (1999), states that “One day I got caught by one of the staff when I was passing notes. (The notes were passed to other sick children in quarantine.) I was taken into a locked room and there I was left all day with nothing to eat. I couldn’t get to a toilet or bathroom, so I wet myself. I was about nine or ten years old. I dried my undies on the radiator and, of course, they gave off quite an odour. When the matron came to get me at night she smelled the odour and slapped me around for wetting myself, but I couldn’t help it; there was no place to go. She then took me up to the dormitory where the rest of the girls were in bed. She told me to get into my nightgown and lie across the bed on my stomach. Then she got a strap and strapped me across the back. Finally I got so numb that I couldn’t cry anymore. But she kept on strapping me and telling the other girls that she was making an example out of me, and they would get the same treatment if they got caught doing what I did.” There were also many other stories of the physical abuse and as is with other sections, there was no mention as to whether there was any help for the students once they left the schools. I would imagine that for the majority of cases there would be no help, as with the section on the cycle of abuse it is mentioned that they passed this abuse on to their children.

     This concludes what I fould in my literature review. As noted, there was a lack of information in what there was for healing. I had heard mention of healing circles and the like but at this stage was unsure of what there was out there. This led me to my healing section