Learning Activity 6:
Content Analysis: Latent and Manifest
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“All qualitative studies involve content analysis procedures in one form
or another. In general, content analysis involves creating categories of
data and developing rules for coding data into these categories. The use
of content analysis varies according to the type of qualitative study that
is conducted.”
- Nieswiadomy, R. (2002).
Foundations of Nursing Research, (p. 159 - 160).
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Overview
Qualitative content analysis is used to deduce inferences through systematic, objective and statistical data analyses (Dempsey & Dempsey, 2000). "In conducting a research study using content analysis, the investigator first formulates a research question, then selects an appropriate communication medium to be analyzed, establishes categories of information to be included in the analysis, then codes the content of the medium according to pre-established rules. Once the content has been coded, the categories are scored and scaled (usually statistically) and comparisons are made," (p. 181). Content analysis can be either latent or manifest. With 'manifest content,' the features of communication that are salient for categorization reside on the surface of communication. They are easily observable. This includes phenomena such as word counts or sex of participants. The classification of "latent pattern" content relies on the identification of constellations of manifest content configured in particular ways. "Latent projective" content analysis focuses more on the researcher's interpretations of the meaning of the content.
Any medium of communication can be analyzed for content, including text materials, videotaped and audiotaped data, photographs, pictures, and so on. Themes and concepts are derived from this intense form of data analysis. In manifest content analysis, even qualitative content analysis can have some quantitative aspects to it. For instance, the frequency of a phenomenon's occurrence might be established. Descriptive and inferential statistics may also be used to help address the research question. An example of a research question might be "Do contemporary
television commercials reflect traditional gender stereotypes?" As a general rule of thumb, content analyses are very systematic and measures are taken to keep the process as objective as possible. "In some situations, appropriate statistical analyses are performed on the frequencies or percentages obtained to determine whether significant differences exist relevant to the research question. The researcher then uses such tabulations and statistical analyses to interpret the data as they reflect on the problem under investigation," (Leedy & Ormrod, 2001, p. 156).
Latent content analysis looks deeper at the underlying meaning of words and phrases within qualitative data. "Latent content analysis codes the investigator’s impression or interpretation of the underlying meaning of a communication, whereas manifest content analysis codes the visible or surface content. Concepts emerge from the data when latent content analysis is used. Conversely, data are coded or classified according to a conceptual framework with manifest content analysis," (Gagel, 1988). Latent content is implicit. It is the content that is often implied, but not present, in text or images. The researcher has to interpret the presence of latent content. It is somewhat more difficult to code for, because it requires a familiarity with the context of the objects. One may miss the connotations of words if one is not familiar with their particular idiom. Images may also contain symbolic references. Again, the researcher has to be familiar with the context to be able to perceive these references. Latent content can be coded for objectively, if multiple coders all rely on the same set of interpretive guidelines.
Ends In View
This learning activity is intended to provide learners with the opportunity to:
1. Explore the nature of latent content analysis data.
2. Understand the rationale for qualitative latent content analysis.
3. Explore the process of qualitative latent content analysis.
4. Practice doing latent content analysis using a computer software program.
5. Explore the use of concept mapping in latent content analysis.
6. Critique the latent content analysis process described in a select research study.
In Preparation
1.Read: Rourke, L., Anderson, T., Garrison, D. & Archer. W. (2001). Methodical issues in the content analysis of computer conference transcripts. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 12. (pdf format).
2.Read:Gagel, M. (1988). Verbal description of pain by patients with cancer. Unpublished Thesis: University of British Columbia School of Nursing, Chapter.
3.Read:Novak, J. (1988). The theory underlying concept maps and how to construct them.
Assignment 1: If need be continue to work on the thematic grouping analysis on the data you collected for Assignment No. 1 using the QDA computer program. By now, you should have most of your theme work completed. You will need these themes grouped in the QDA program to begin to work with latent content analysis during computer lab time this week . (see assignment No. 1 guidelines for procedure and timeline to follow
In Practice
1. Participate in class discussion related to the process of latent content analysis (review Figure 4 at end of learning activity).
2.Share your progress with grouping themes using the QDA software program.
3.In pairs, complete Worksheet No. 5 paying attention to the process involved in latent content analysis.
4.Explore the use of concept mapping in the process of latent content analysis.
5. With the class, critique the latent content analysis process used in the assigned study by
Gagel (available online).
In Lab - Latent Content Analysis with the QDA Software Program
1. Attend lab to familiarize yourself with latent content analysis with this software.
2. If necessary, Review the online orientation materials to further understand the applications and process of using the QDA software:
3. Begin to perform latent content analysis on the data you previously gathered, as
directed during lab session.
In Reflection
1. Reflect on your comfort level with working with latent content analysis using the QDA software. What do you need to do to become more confident working with this program?
2. How has latent content analysis contributed to nursing science and our understanding?
References
Fenton, A. (2006). QDA Manual
Gillis, A. & Jackson, W. (2002). Research for Nurses: Methods and Interpretations. Philadelphia: F.A. Davis.
Leedy, P. & Ormrod, J. (2001). Practical research, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill Prentice-Hall.
LoBiondo-Wood, G. & Haber, J. (2005). Nursing research in Canada: Methods, critical appraisal, & utilization. 1st ed. Toronto: Elsevier.
Myers, M. (1999). Qualitative research in information systems.
Nieswiadomy, R. (2002). Foundations of nursing research. (4th ed.) Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Polit, D. (1996). Data analysis & statistics. Stamford, CT: Appleton & Lange.
QDA Software
Streubert Speziale, H. & Carpenter, D. (2003) Qualitative research in nursing: Advancing the humanistic perspective. 3rd ed. New York: Lippincott.
Talbot, L. (1995). Principles & practices of nursing research. Toronto:Mosby.
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Welcome to NRSG 4120!
Figure 5: Latent Content Analysis
LA#6: Worksheet
Content Analysis in QDA
Content Analysis (PPT)
Qualitative Assignment Summary
QDA Project Sample
COURSE ASSIGNMENTS
The assignments include one Group Qualitative Analysis project and Five Quantitative Worksheets. Click on the link below for Assignment software and other resources.
ONLINE SOFTWARE & RESOURCES FOR ASSIGNMENTS
Downloading Files
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